U  G 


:-NRLF 


7M 


GIFT   OF 
?.H.L. 


MILITARY  AVIATION 


PREPARED  BY  THE  WAR  COLLEGE  DIVISION,  GENERAL  STAFF  CORPS 

AS   A   SUPPLEMENT   TO    THE    STATEMENT    OF   A   PROPER   MILITARY 

POLICY  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES 


WCD  9311-1 


ARMY  WAR  COLLEGE  :  WASHINGTON 

NOVEMBER,  1915 


WASHINGTON 

GOVERNMENT  PRINTING  OFFICE 
1916 


516 


/ 


/ 


WAR  DEPARTMENT, 

Document  No.  515. 

Office  of  the  Chief  of  Staff. 


SYNOPSIS. 


I.  INTRODUCTION. 

Page. 

1.  Relation  of  aviation  to  the  military  service 5 

2.  Use  of  aircraft  on  our  coast  and  with  our  mobile  land  forces 5 

3.  Use  of  aircraft  at  over-sea  stations 6 

II.  GENERAL  TYPES  OF  AIRCRAFT. 

4.  Captive  balloons * 7 

5.  Dirigibles 8 

6.  Aeroplanes 10 

7.  Types  of  aeroplanes 10 

8.  Requirements  of  various  types  of  machines 1 10 

9.  Aeroplane  engines 12 

III.  FUNCTIONS  OP  AIRCRAFT. 

10.  Height  at  which  aeroplanes  must  fly 12 

11.  Strategical  reconnaissance 12 

12.  Photography  from  aeroplanes 13 

13.  Aeroplanes  and  artillery 13 

14.  Control  of  the  air 13 

15.  Surprise  movements 14 

16.  Bomb  dropping 14 

IV.  ORGANIZATION  OF  AEROPLANE  UNITS. 

17.  Tactics  of  aeroplanes 15 

18.  Development  during  European  war 15 

19.  Assignment  of  aeroplanes  to  Artillery 16 

V.  DEVELOPMENT  OF  AERONAUTICAL  PERSONNEL. 

20.  General  line  of  development  in  Europe 16 

21.  Officer-ob  servers  and  noncommissioned  officer-pilots 16 

22.  Losses  to  aero  personnel  in  war 16 

23.  Development  of  aeronautic  personnel  in  the  United  States 17 

24.  Scope  of  needed  legislation 18 

515 

(3) 


MILITARY  AVIATION. 


I.   INTRODUCTION. 
1.  RELATION  OF  AVIATION  TO  THE  MILITARY  SERVICE. 

In  this  paper  it  is  proposed  to  consider  various  aeronautical  appli- 
ances in  regard  to  their  practical  value  in  campaign,  as  shown  by 
such  data  as  are  now  available  from  the  theater  of  war  in  Europe. 

In  its  relation  to  the  military  service,  aviation  to-day  may  be 
regarded  as  embracing  all  aerial  appliances,  such  as  heavier-than-air 
craft,  dirigibles  lighter-than-air  craft,  and  nondirigibles  or  captive 
lighter-than-air  balloons,  together  with  the  personnel  necessary  for 
their  operation  and  management. 

2.  USE  OF  AIRCRAFT  ON  OUR  COAST  AND  WITH  OUR  MOBILE 

LAND  FORCES. 

In  considering  this  subject  account  should  be  taken,  first,  of  the 
use  of  aircraft  of  various  types  along  and  beyond  the  coasts  and 
frontiers  of  the  United  States  upon  the  outbreak  of  war;  second, 
the  use  of  aircraft  in  the  Army  by  the  mobile  forces;  third,  the  use 
of  aircraft  by  our  over-sea  garrisons. 

In  addition  to  the  battle  fleet  and  units  of  the  Navy  designed  to 
take  the  offensive  on  the  high  seas,  the  waters  contiguous  to  the 
coast  line  of  the  United  States  are  organized  into  naval  defense  dis- 
tricts. These  cover  certain  sections  of  the  coast  line  and  contain 
patrol  vessels,  both  surface  and  subsurface,  and  aircraft  for  recon- 
noissance  purposes.  These  are  essentially  for  the  purpose  of  finding 
out  and  locating  hostile  vessels  which  are  approaching  the  coast  and 
of  determining  their  strength,  dispositions,  and  probable  intentions. 

Added  to  the  strictly  naval  formations  included  in  the  naval 
defense  districts,  in  time  of  war  the  United  States  Coast  Guard  (in 
peace  under  the  Treasury  Department)  passes  to  the  control  of  the 
Navy. 

The  Coast  Guard,  in  addition  to  its  boats  and  revenue  cutters 
which  will  be  utilized  as  patrol  vessels,  embraces  the  Life-Saving 
Service.  The  latter  has  stations  more  or  less  regularly  distributed 
along  the  coasts  which  are  connected  by  telephone  lines.  They  are 
also  equipped  with  visual  signaling  appliances  to  communicate  from 
shore  to  ships.  The  Navy  maintains  a  chain  of  radio  stations  along 

our  coasts  and  over-sea  possessions. 
Hi 


6 

The  naval  defense  districts  become  of  great  importance  in  case 
that  the  main  battle  fleets  are  defeated  or  in  case  they  are  operating 
at  a  great  distance.  Therefore,  when  an  enemy  expedition  breaks 
through  the  naval  defense  and  approaches  the  coast  with  a  view  to 
forcing  a  landing  the  resistance  to  such  an  expedition  becomes  pri- 
marily a  function  of  the  Army. 

The  defensive  formations  of  the  Army  consist  of  the  harbor 
defenses  and  accessories  and  the  mobile  units.  The  harbor  defenses 
consist  of  fixed  and  mobile  gun  defenses  and  mine  defenses;  also 
obstacles  both  on  land  and  in  the  waters.  The  aircraft  required  in 
connection  with  the  harbor  defenses  should  consist  of  machines  used 
for  one  or  more  of  the  following  purposes : 

(a)  For  reconnaissance — that  is,  to  determine  the  strength,  dis- 
positions, and  probable  intentions  of  the  enemy. 

(b)  For  preventing  hostile  aerial  reconnaissance. 

(c)  For  destroying  hostile  aircraft  and  for  offensive  work  against 
enemy  submarines  and  other  vessels,  including  the  interruption  of 
enemy  mining  or  countermining  operations. 

(d)  For  aiding  in  spotting  the  fire  of  Coast  Artillery,  both  against 
ships  and  against  any  invading  force  that  may  invest  the  seacoast 
fortifications. 

The  number  and  character  of  the  aircraft  required  depends  on  the 
locality,  number  of  harbor  defenses,  their  organization,  strength, 
and  positions.  Each  harbor-defense  area,  therefore,  needs  to  be 
studied  with  this  specific  end  in  view,  and  should  have  radio  appa- 
ratus not  only  for  communicating  with  the  Navy  but  also  for  com- 
municating with  its  aircraft  and  with  the  units  of  our  mobile  forces. 

In  addition  to  the  aircraft  required  with  the  harbor  defenses  them- 
selves, aircraft  are  required  with  modern  movable  coast-defense 
armament  employed  as  an  auxiliary  element  of  the  mobile  forces  in 
defending  the  intervals  between  our  fortified  harbors  and  with  units 
of  the  mobile  forces. 

The  use  of  aircraft  with  the  mobile  units  is  a  definite  matter; 
each  division  requires  one  squadron  of  12  aeroplanes.  These  are 
divided  into  three  companies  of  four  aeroplanes  each,  two  companies 
having  reconnaissance  and  artillery  observation  machines  and  one 
company  having  two  high-speed  machines  especially  constructed  for 
long-distance  reconnaissance  and  for  combating  the  enemy's  aerial 
craft;  two  battle  machines  for  the  purpose  of  bomb  dropping  and 
offensive  work  against  enemy  material  of  all  sorts.  This  is  in  keep- 
ing with  the  best  practice  that  has  been  developed  in  the  European 
war. 

3.  USE  OF  AIRCRAFT  AT  OVER-SEA  STATIONS. 

The  use  of  aircraft  with  the  Army  in  the  over-sea  possessions  is 
analogous  to  that  mentioned  above  with  the  harbor  defenses ;  and  in 

§15 


addition,  wherever  mobile  units  of  the  Army  happen  to  be,  they 
must  be  provided  with  suitable  aircraft.  The  defense  of  over-sea 
possessions  constitutes  a  problem  in  itself,  and  these  garrisons  must 
be  equipped  not  only  with  machines  capable  of  reconnaissance  over 
land  but  also  with  those  capable  of  operations  over  water,  with  the 
power  to  alight  in  water — that  is,  hydroaeroplanes. 

The  type  of  machine  to  be  used  necessarily  depends  on  the  locality: 
for  instance,  in  Hawaii  practically  all  of  the  military  machines 
would  need  to  be  hydroaeroplanes;  in  the  Philippines  and  Panama  a 
great  proportion  of  them.  To  the  Coast  Artillery  troops  in  the 
United  States  proper  and  in  the  districts  around  the  Great  Lakes 
the  same  considerations  apply.  It  is  believed  that  the  main  princi- 
ples enunciated  above  should  be  followed,  and  that  an  estimate  of 
actual  machines  and  material,  both  heavier  and  lighter  than  air, 
should  be  made  for  all  places. 

* 

II.   GENERAL,  TYPES   OF  AIRCRAFT. 
4.  CAPTIVE  BALLOONS. 

For  over  a  century  captive  balloons  have  been  used  by  the  armies 
of  all  the  leading  military  nations.  Their  function  has  been  one  of 
observation;  that  is,  to  see  what  those  on  the  ground  were  unable 
to  see.  They  have  therefore  proved  a  useful  means  of  observing  and 
reporting  the  effects  of  artillery  fire.  Electrical  means  of  communi- 
cation greatly  enhanced  the  utility  of  captive  balloons,  as  it  made 
communication  instantaneous  from  car  to  ground  instead  of  by  the 
older  way  of  raising  and  lowering  written  messages  by  ropes.  In 
clear  weather  and  on  favorable  terrain  captive  balloons  are  able  to 
distinguish  different  branches  of  the  service  at  a  distance  of  16,000 
yards  or  about  9  miles.  With  the  best  glasses  at  the  present  time 
the  field  of  observation  is  said  to  extend  to  20,000  yards.  In  general, 
captive  balloons  of  the  "  Sausage  "  or  "  Drachen  "  type  are  used  by 
all  the  armies  of  the  great  nations.  Along  the  French-German  front 
in  northern  France  these  balloons  are  used  in  great  numbers  all 
along  the  lines.  Their  function  is  to  observe  the  fire  of  artillery  and 
keep  watch  of  all  movements  of  hostile  parties  within  their  field  of 
view.  They  are  connected  by  telephone  directly  with  the  batteries 
whose  fire  they  are  observing  and  with  the  headquarters  to  which 
they  are  attached.  In  many  cases  the  captive  balloons  work  in  con- 
junction with  aeroplanes.  The  aeroplanes  by  flying  over  the  terrain 
where  the  hostile  targets  are  located  find  out  the  exact  position  of 
those  which  the  captive  balloons  have  been  unable  to  locate  by  them- 
selves. When  by  means  of  signals  the  locations  of  the  targets  have 
been  indicated  to  the  observer  in  the  captive  balloon,  the  aeroplanes 
proceed  to  other  duty.  Aside  from  the  use  of  the  captive  balloons 

515 


8 

in  conjunction  with  aeroplanes,  their  duties  are  practically  the  same 
as  they  have  been  for  many  years  or  were  in  our  own  Civil  War. 
Free  ballcons  such  as  were  used  from  Paris,  for  instance,  in  1S70 
are  now  a  thing  of  the  past,  their  place  having  been  taken  by  the 
aeroplane  or  the  dirigible  airship.  All  military  captive  balloons  are 
now  so  constructed  that  their  undersurface  acts  like  a  kite,  thereby 
making  them  steady  in  a  strong  wind.  To  keep  the  envelope  dis- 
tended properly  in  the  face  of  the  wind,  a  wind  sail  is  provided  so 
as  to  transmit  pressure  to  the  rear  part  of  the  envelope  by  means 
of  the  wind  itself.  Captive  balloons  are  used  not  only  with  the  field 
forces,  but  also  are  especially  useful  in  fortress  warfare.  The 
organizations  which  handle  these  balloons  consist  ordinarily  of 
some  4  officers,  72  men  for  each  balloon  section. 

5.  DIRIGIBLES. 

The  term  dirigible,  as  applied  to  aeronautical  appliances,  signifies 
a  lighter-than-air  craft,  which  is  equipped  with  engines  and  pro- 
pellers capable  of  moving  it  from  place  to  place.  Dirigibles  may  be 
roughly  divided  into  three  classes:  Nonrigid,  or  those  whose  enve- 
lope can  be  entirely  packed  into  a  small  space  when  deflated,  and 
that  have  no  rigid  framework  of  any  kind ;  semirigid,  or  those  that 
have  a  stiffening  for  a  part  of  their  length  in  order  to  enable  the 
envelopes  to  maintain  their  shape  to  better  advantage  than  the  non- 
rigid;  the  rigid,  which  have  a  framework  for  the  whole  envelope 
that  maintains  itself  continuously.  All  have  been  tried  for  the  last 
15  years.  The  nonrigid  types  have  not  given  very  good  results,  as 
they  are  too  much  dependent  on  the  weather,  due  to  distortion  of 
the  envelopes;  the  semirigid  have  given  some  satisfaction  and  have 
been  largely  employed.  The  advantage  of  the  semirigid  types  is 
that  they  may  be  packed  for  shipment  and  reassembled  much  more 
easily  than  the  rigid  types;  they  can  be  deflated  quickly  and,  con- 
sequently, are  not  so  subject  to  complete  destruction  as  the  rigid 
types  when  anchored  to  the  earth.  On  the  other  hand,  they  are  not 
able  to  develop  the  speed  that  the  rigid  types,  such  as  the  "  Zeppelin," 
are  capable  of. 

Dirigibles  and  aeroplanes  are  frequently  compared  with  each  other 
as  to  their  utility  in  general.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  are  two 
entirely  different  military  accessories  and  are  as  different  in  many 
ways  as  is  a  captive  balloon  from  an  aeroplane.  Dirigibles  are  able 
to  stay  in  the  air  at  any  height  for  long  periods  of  time.  They  are 
capable  of  running  at  reduced  speed,  can  hover  over  localities  for 
minute  observation  and  to  take  photographs.  They  are  able  to  carry 
several  tons  weight  in  addition  to  their  passengers  and  crew.  From 
the  fact  that  they  are  able  to  remain  stationary  over  a  given  place 

515 


9 

they  are  able  to  launch  their  projectiles  with  greater  accuracy.  Dirig- 
ibles in  the  present  war  have  been  used  both  over  land  and  sea.  At 
sea  they  have  carried  out  reconnaissance,  have  acted  offensively 
against  hostile  submarines,  have  accompanied  transports  in  order  to 
observe  the  approach  of  hostile  craft,  have  been  used  in  mine  laying, 
stopping  and  examining  hostile  merchant  vessels  at  sea,  and  for 
bombarding  hostile  localities.  The  airships  which  have  made  the 
longest  trips  and  developed  the  greatest  efficiency  thus  far  are  the 
German  "  Zeppelin  "  rigid-frame  type.  These  have  repeatedly  flown 
over  England  at  a  distance  of  at  least  300  miles  from  their  base,  and 
have  nearly  always  returned  in  safety.  Some  have  been  lost,  how- 
ever. Aeroplanes  appear  to  be  unable  to  cope  with  them  at  night. 
While  dirigibles  have  not  proved  themselves  to  be  a  determining 
factor  in  combat,  either  on  land  or  sea,  they  are  being  developed  to 
the  greatest  extent  possible,  especially  by  the  Germans,  who  have 
dirigibles  of  very  great  size.  The  principal  features  of  this  type 
are  a  rigid  framework  of  aluminum,  a  number  of  drum-shaped  gas 
bags,  and  a  thin  outer  cover.  Although  the  details  of  construction 
are  not  definitely  known  up  to  date,  their  length  is  about  485  feet, 
their  volume  about  900,000  cubic  feet,  their  total  lift  over  20  tons, 
and  their  useful  lift  about  5  tons.  They  are  driven  by  four  motors 
of  a  total  horsepower  of  about  800,  which  is  applied  to  four  pro- 
pellers. Their  speed  is  from  50  to  60  or  more  miles  per  hour  and  a 
full-speed  endurance  of  over  100  hours,  or  more  than  4  days.  It  is 
therefore  evident  that  in  good  weather  these  airships  have  a  radius 
of  action  of  from  5,000  to  6,000  miles.  Moreover,  they  are  being 
constantly  improved,  and  are  probably  capable  of  crossing  the  Atlan- 
tic Ocean.  Crews  of  from  10  to  20  men  are  required  for  their  opera- 
tion; they  are  armed  with  bombs  of  various  sorts,  light  guns,  and 
are  equipped  with  searchlights.  They  carry  very  efficient  radio  ap- 
parati,  which  have  equipments  for  determining  the  directions  from 
which  radio  impulses  are  being  sent.  In  this  way  they  are  able  to 
locate  themselves  at  night  or  in  foggy  weather  when  the  ground  is 
invisible.  They  require  very  large  and  expensive  hangars,  gas  plants, 
and  equipments  for  their  operation.  When  forced  to  make  landings 
outside  of  their  hangars,  on  account  of  their  bulk,  they  are  very  diffi- 
cult to  handle  in  hard  winds,  and  are  liable  to  destruction  thereby. 

The  best  of  the  nonrigid  and  semirigid  airships  have  a  capacity 
of  more  than  800,000  cubic  feet,  a  maximum  speed  of  50  miles  per 
hour  or  less,  and  a  full  speed  endurance  of  about  24  hours.  As  men- 
tioned above,  their  great  asset  is  extreme  portability  and  cheapness 
as  compared  with  the  rigid  type. 
'—No.  515—16 2 


10 

6.  AEROPLANES. 

Heavier- than- air  craft  made  their  appearance  as  military  agencies 
in  1908,  when  the  Wright  brothers  demonstrated  thoroughly  their 
possibilities  in  this  respect.  While  many  of  the  salient  features  of 
heavier- than- air  machines  had  been  worked  out  years  before,  it  re- 
mained for  the  internal-combustion  engine  to  really  make  mechanical 
flight  possible.  The  military  possibilities  of  aircraft  of  this  descrip- 
tion were  appreciated  immediately  by  the  great  nations.  Large  ap- 
propriations were  made  at  once,  notably  by  France  and  Germany, 
for  their  development.  At  first  England  was  slow  to  take  up  the 
matter,  but  in  1912  had  gone  at  it  thoroughly  and  was  spending  large 
amounts  of  money  for  their  development.  Italy,  Kussia,  Japan, 
and  the  smaller  nations  of  Europe  and  South  America  made  liberal 
appropriations  for  obtaining  the  material  and  developing  the  person- 
nel. Aeroplanes  were  used  in  a  small  way  during  the  Italian  cam- 
paign in  Africa  during  the  Balkan-Turkish  War,  and  during  the 
Balkan  War.  These  nations  had  very  little  equipment  and  very  few 
trained  flyers.  Wherever  the  aeroplanes  were  given  the  opportunity, 
under  average  conditions  they  rendered  efficient  service  in  recon- 
naissance. 

7.  TYPES  OF  AEROPLANES. 

We  now  find  aeroplanes  consisting  of  three  principal  classes:  (a) 
Scout  or  speed  machines;  (b)  reconnaissance  aeroplanes;  (c)  battle 
machines.  The  first  are  used  for  distant  reconnaissance  and  com- 
bating the  enemy's  aircraft,  the  second  for  ordinary  reconnaissance 
and  the  observation  of  fire  of  artillery,  and  the  third  for  the  de- 
struction of  enemy's  material,  personnel,  or  equipment. 

8.  REQUIREMENTS  OF  VARIOUS  TYPES  OF  MACHINES. 

Great  advances  have  been  made  since  the  war  began  in  all  these 
machines,  all  the  details  of  which  are  not  yet  available.  The  fol- 
lowing table,  which  appeared  in  the  London  Times  of  February  19, 
1914,  gives  the  approximate  requirements  of  each  type  of  machine 
at  the  beginning  of  the  war.  These  general  characteristics  are  still 
desired,  but  the  radius  of  action  and  the  speed  have  been  con- 
siderably increased : 

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9.  AEROPLANE  ENGINES. 

As  to  material,  the  most  important  consideration  in  aeroplane  con- 
struction has  been  the  engine.  Without  excellent  engines  the  best 
aeroplanes  otherwise  are  of  no  service;  in  fact,  may  be  a  source  of 
danger.  In  the  countries  where  aeroplane  development  has  made  the 
most  progress  large  prizes  have  been  given  for  the  development  of 
suitable  engines.  At  the  same  time,  research  and  experimentation 
have  gone  on  along  this  line  at  Government  plants.  Engines  re- 
quire frequent  replacement.  In  fact,  it  is  reported  that  after  100 
hours  in  the  air  engines  are  "  scrapped "  and  new  ones  installed. 
The  plan  found  to  give  excellent  results  for  the  development  of 
material  is  for  the  Government  to  have  stations  where  experimenta- 
tion along  all  lines  is  carried  on.  On  the  data  furnished  by  these 
establishments  specifications  are  made  up  for  the  construction  of 
aircraft  by  private  individuals  and  civil  manufactories.  If  any 
parts,  such  as  the  engines  mentioned  above,  need  additional  develop- 
ment, prizes  are  offered  to  stimulate  construction  and  progress. 

III.   FUNCTIONS   OF  AIRCRAFT. 
10.  HEIGHT  AT  WHICH  AEROPLANES  MUST  FLY. 

It  was  soon  found  out  that  to  escape  the  fire  of  small  arms  a 
height  of  about  4,000  feet  above  the  ground  had  to  be  maintained. 
As  soon  as  balloon  guns  were  created  this  height  had  to  be  increased 
to  6,000  feet,  at  which  height  it  is  now  necessary  to  fly  in  order  to  be 
reasonably  safe  from  being  hit  by  hostile  projectiles  sufficient  to 
bring  the  machine  down.  At  this  height,  6,000  feet,  small  details  of 
the  terrain  and  small  detachments  of  troops  or  material  are  very 
difficult  to  distinguish.  On  the  other  hand,  large  columns  of  troops, 
trains,  railways,  bridges,  artillery  firing,  arid  sometimes  in  position, 
defensive  positions  of  large  extent,  and  things  of  that  nature  can  be 
readily  distinguished.  Whenever  it  becomes  necessary  for  the  air- 
craft to  fly  at  a  lower  altitude  than  6,000  feet  the  chance  of  destruc- 
tion by  gunfire  must  be  considered. 

11.  STRATEGICAL  RECONNAISSANCE. 

Reconnaissance  of  this  kind  is  strategical  in  its  nature,  the  tactical 
reconnaissance  of  particular  localities  is  still  carried  out  by  troops 
or  captive  balloons.  In  fact,  it  may  be  said  that  all  strategical  recon- 
naissance is  now  carried  on  by  aircraft.  The  reconnaissance  is  car- 
ried out  by  an  officer  who  requires  considerable  experience  in  order  to 
be  able  to  distinguish  objects  on  the  earth  and  assign  to  them  their 
true  military  value.  The  pilot  is  either  an  officer  or  noncommissioned 
officer.  The  observer  is  always  a  trained  tactical  officer,  because  in 
reconnaissance  of  this  nature  an  untrained  person  can  not  interpret 
the  military  significance  of  what  he  sees. 

515 


13 

12.  PHOTOGRAPHY  FROM  AEROPLANES. 

Photography  is  utilized  to  the  greatest  extent  possible  in  aerial 
reconnaissance.  The  devices  are  so  arranged  that  they  are  capable 
of  taking  one  or  a  series  of  views  of  a  particular  locality.  The  plates 
or  films  thus  made  are  rapidly  developed  and  are  thrown  on  a  screen 
by  means  of  a  stereopticon,  when  all  details  are  magnified  to  any 
extent  desired  and  details  invisible  to  the  naked  eye  are  brought  out 
plainly.  These  details  are  then  entered  on  the  maps  of  the  officers 
concerned.  As  the  height  at  which  an  aeroplane  is  flying  can  be 
taken  from  the  barograph,  and  as  the  focal  angle  of  the  lens  of  the 
camera  is  known,  a  scale  can  easily  be  worked  out  and  the  views  form 
good  maps  of  the  terrain  photographed. 

13.  AEROPLANES  AND  ARTILLERY. 

In  addition  to  reconnaissance  in  general,  aeroplanes  have  taken 
their  place  as  a  fixture  for  observing  the  fire  of  artillery.  Due  to 
the  degree  of  concealment  which  artillery  is  now  given,  it  is  im- 
possible to  determine  its  location  from  the  ground.  The  aeroplanes 
first  pick  up  the  targets,  report  their  location  to  the  field  artillery, 
and  then  observe  the  fire  of  the  batteries.  By  means  of  prearranged 
visual  signals  or  radiotelegraph^  the  aeroplanes  are  able  to  indicate 
to  the  artillery  where  their  fire  is  making  itself  felt.  If  artillery 
is  insufficiently  provided  with  aeroplanes,  it  is  well  established  that 
an  enemy  so  provided  has  an  overwhelming  advantage. 

14.  CONTROL  OF  THE  AIR. 

For  this  reason,  among  others,  attempts  to  gain  "control  of  the 
air"  are  made  by  belligerents  at  the  inception  of  hostilities.  This 
takes  the  form  of  offensive  action  by  aeroplane  against  aeroplane. 
For  this  purpose  machines  known  as  "speed  scouts"  and  "battle 
aeroplanes"  have  been  developed.  All  the  great  European  nations 
are  now  equipped  with  them.  The  only  way  in  which  enemy  aero- 
planes can  be  effectively  dealt  with  is  by  aeroplanes,  because  they 
are  difficult  targets  for  gunfire  from  the  ground.  To  gain  control 
of  the  air  a  great  preponderance  in  number  and  efficiency  of  air- 
craft is  necessary.  So  far  in  the  European  war,  unless  one  side  had 
a  greatly  preponderating  number  and  quality  of  aeroplanes,  they 
have  been  unable  to  obtain  and  keep  control  of  the  air.  An  excellent 
instance  of  obtaining  control  of  the  air  seems  to  be  furnished  by  the 
Austro-Germans  when  they  initiated  the  campaign  against  the  Rus- 
sians in  May,  1915.  In  this  instance  complete  control  of  the  air 
appears  to  have  been  obtained.  The  results  to  the  Russians  were 
disastrous  because  the  Austro-Germans  were  able  to  fly  at  will  wher- 
ever they  wanted  to,  could  pick  up  the  location  of  the  Russian 

515 


14 

masses,  and  make  their  movements  accordingly,  entirely  unobserved 
by  the  Russians.  In  the  fire  of  their  artillery  they  had  the  advantage 
of  being  able  to  locate  the  Russian  guns  and  observe  their  own  fire, 
while  the  Russians  were  powerless  to  do  so. 

In  an  article  on  "  Recent  progress  in  military  aeronautics,"  pub- 
lished in  the  Journal  of  the  Franklin  Institute  for  October,  1915, 
Lieut.  Col.  Samuel  Reber,  Signal  Corps,  United  States  Army,  sums 
up  the  question  of  machines  for  control  of  the  air  as  follows: 

Experience  has  developed  three  types  of  aeroplanes  for  military  purposes: 
The  first,  the  speed  scout,  for  strategical  reconnaissance,  a  one  seater,  with  a 
speed  up  to  85  miles  per  hour  and  radius  of  action  of  300  miles  and  a  fast 
climber,  about  700  feet  per  minute;  the  second  for  general  reconnaissance  pur- 
poses with  the  same  radius  of  action,  carrying  both  pilot  and  observer  and 
equipped  with  radiotelegraphy,  slower  in  speed,  about  70  miles  per  hour,  and 
climbing  about  500  feet  per  minute,  and  in  some  cases  protected  by  armor ;  the 
third,  or  fighting  craft,  armored,  and  carries  in  addition  to  the  pilot  a  rapid- 
fire  gun  and  ammunition  and  so  arranged  as  to  have  a  clear  field  of  view  and 
fire  in  either  direction  up  to  30  degrees  from  the  line  of  flight,  the  speed  to 
run  from  45  to  65  miles  per  hour,  and  the  machine  to  climb  about  350  feet 
per  minute. 

15.  SURPRISE  MOVEMENTS. 

It  is  often  said  that  due  to  the  use  of  aeroplanes  surprises  are  no 
longer  possible.  Generally  speaking,  this  is  so,  providing  both 
sides  are  equally  well  equipped  with  machines  and  weather  con- 
ditions are  favorable.  If,  however,  complete  "  command  of  the  air  " 
is  obtained  by  one  side,  the  chances  of  surprising  the  enemy  are 
greater  than  they  have  ever  been  before. 

16.  BOMB  DROPPING. 

In  addition  to  their  functions  of  reconnaissance,  the  observation 
of  the  fire  of  artillery,  and  the  combat  of  hostile  machines,  both 
heavier  and  lighter  than  air,  much  time,  thought,  and  ingenuity  have 
been  given  to  the  subject  of  dropping  projectiles.  Bombs  of  various 
sorts  weighing  from  a  couple  of  pounds  to  50  pounds  have  been 
tried.  The  most  common  ones  weigh  from  15  to  35  pounds.  At  the 
height  at  which  aeroplanes  are  required  to  fly  it  is  extremely  diffi- 
cult to  hit  an  object  with  any  certainty.  Various  devices  have  been 
used  and  tried  for  this  purpose.  The  factors  of  height,  speed,  and 
wind,  are  almost  impossible  to  compensate  for  entirely,  up  to  the 
present  time,  so  that  consequently  bomb  dropping  in  general  or  the 
launching  of  projectiles  of  all  kinds  from  aeroplanes  has  not  at- 
tained great  results  in  so  far  as  the  actual  destruction  of  material 
or  personnel  is  concerned.  Advances  along  this  line  are  constantly 
being  made,  however,  but  progress  is  slow.  A  special  type  of  aero- 
plane has  been  developed  for  dropping  bombs  and  battle  purposes. 

515 


15 

For  bomb  attacks  on  any  locality  these  machines  are  sent  in  flotillas 
of  from  30  to  60  machines,  each  of  which  is  provided  with  from 
5  to  10  bombs.  They  go  to  the  locality  and  circle  over  it,  dropping 
their  projectiles.  Against  railways,  roads,  bridges,  and  hostile  parks 
of  various  kinds,  this  method  of  attack  has  given  considerable 
success. 

IV.   ORGANIZATION   OF  AEROPLANE  UNITS. 
17.  TACTICS  OF  AEROPLANES. 

As  to  tactical  use  aeroplanes  seem  to  be  approaching  methods  simi- 
lar to  those  used  by  a  navy.  That  is,  first  the  speed  machines  re- 
connoiter  to  the  front;  they  are  followed  by  the  battle  machines, 
which  in  their  turn  clear  the  way  for  the  reconnaissance  aeroplanes; 
those  assigned  to  the  artillery  stay  right  with  their  guns.  Fortresses, 
harbor-defense  works,  and  naval  formations  require  special  organi- 
zations of  aeroplanes,  some  or  all  of  which  may  be  operated  from 
the  water.  The  organization,  kind,  and  number  of  the  machines  and 
personnel  required  for  this  particular  service  depend  on  the  special 
locality  and  mission  of  whatever  formation  the  aircraft  are  to  be 
attached  to. 

18.  DEVELOPMENT  DURING  EUROPEAN  WAR. 

The  use  of  aeroplanes  is  gradually  being  developed  from  expe- 
rience in  the  European  war.  Organization  has  been  found  to  be  one 
of  the  most  important  considerations;  in  general  the  organization 
has  been  into  squadrons.  The  squadron  is  a  tactical  and  adminis- 
trative unit.  It  has  a  personnel  consisting  of  pilots,  observers, 
bomb  droppers,  mechanicians,  chauffeurs,  and  drivers.  Flying  per- 
sonnel has  to  be  developed  in  the  military  service.  Unlike  chauffeurs, 
for  instance,  there  are  few  in  the  civil  population  who  can  be  drawn 
on.  The  few  who  fly  are  demonstrators,  exhibition  flyers,  or  sports- 
men. They  are  very  few  in  number  and  scarcely  a  military  asset. 
In  France  the  squadrons  usually  have  six  machines  and  two  spares. 
They  have  the  same  organization  of  depots  of  resupply  that  other 
units  of  the  armies  possess.  The  squadrons  usually  consist  of  com- 
plete units  of  one  kind  of  machine ;  that  is,  speed,  reconnaissance,  or 
fighting.  These  squadrons  are  usually  assigned  to  an  army,  or  more 
if  the  machines  and  personnel  are  available. 

In  general  an  aeroplane  requires  for  its  operation  a  personnel  of 
1  pilot,  1  observer,  and  2  enlisted  men,  mechanicians,  chauffeurs,  etc. 

In  England  12  machines  of  different  classes  are  assigned  to  a 
squadron. 

515 


16 

19.  ASSIGNMENT  OF  AEROPLANES  TO  ARTILLERY. 

Many  are  of  the  opinion  that  machines  with  the  personnel  to  op- 
erate them  should  be  assigned  permanently  to  artillery  regiments, 
so  that  they  would  be  immediately  available  whenever  action  is  re- 
quired by  the  artillery.  If  they  have  to  be  obtained  from  a  higher 
headquarters  valuable  time  is  often  lost.  It  is  believed  that  before 
long  aeroplanes  will  be  assigned  permanently  to  regiments  of  artil- 
lery. 

V.  DEVELOPMENT  OF    AERONAUTIC  PERSONNEL. 

20.  GENERAL  LINE  OF  DEVELOPMENT  IN  EUROPE. 

In  the  development  of  their  aeronautical  personnel  all  nations 
have  worked  more  or  less  along  similar  lines.  At  first  these  detach- 
ments were  attached  to  the  engineers.  All  the  pilots  and  observers 
were  officers,  while  the  mechanicians  and  others  were  enlisted  men. 
As  the  science  developed  and  more  and  more  machines  becames  nec- 
essary the  importance  of  this  branch  constantly  increased  until  even- 
tually it  formed  a  separate  arm  of  the  service. 

Instead  of  officers  only  being  employed  in  the  flying  of  the  ma- 
chines noncommissioned  officers  began  to  be"  used  as  the  pilots. 

21.  OFFICER-OBSERVERS  AND  NONCOMMISSIONED  OFFICER. 

PILOTS. 

The  observers  were  either  trained  staff  officers  or  officers  of  par- 
ticular branches  when  the  reconnaissance  being  made  especially  con- 
cerned a  certain  branch.  For  instance,  in  the  observation  of  artil- 
lery fire  an  artillery  officer,  for  the  inspection  of  a  demolished  bridge 
over  a  great  river  an  engineer  officer,  or  for  the  observation  of  the 
tactical  or  strategical  dispositions  of  an  enemy's  troops  a  staff  officer. 
Noncommissioned  officers  are  now  very  generally  used  as  pilots. 
All  countries  now  at  war  have  found  that  they  have  places  for  all 
the  trained  pilots  they  can  possibly  obtain.  In  general  the  units  are 
commanded  by  officers  and  a  certain  number  of  the  pilots  are  officers, 
but  the  bulk  of  the  piloting  is  done  by  enlisted  men  while  the  officers 
are  carried  as  observers. 

22.  LOSSES  TO  AERO  PERSONNEL  IN  WAR. 

The  losses  to  the  flying  personnel  in  war,  when  equipped  with 
proper  machines,  seems  to  be  less  than  that  of  infantry,  cavalry,  and 
artillery  in  the  order  named. 

515 


17 

23.  DEVELOPMENT  OF  AERONAUTIC  PERSONNEL  IN  THE  UNITED 

STATES. 

In  the  United  States  the  development  has  been  along  similar  lines 
to  those  employed  in  Europe,  with  the  difference  that  here  a  branch 
of  the  service  existed  that  did  not  formerly  exist  in  the  European 
armies.  It  was  a  development  of  the  Civil  War,  i.  e.,  the  Signal 
Corps.  This  corps  is  charged  with  the  transmission  of  information 
between  the  various  units  of  an  army;  the  captive  balloons  had 
formerly  been  assigned  to  it,  and  when  the  aeroplanes  made  their 
appearance  they  naturally  fitted  in.  In  this  way  all  the  agencies 
for  the  transmission  of  information  are  kept  under  one  head,  which 
should  give  not  only  the  maximum  amount  of  efficiency  in  such  trans- 
mission but  also  obviate  the  necessity  of  creating  a  new  arm  of  the 
service.  The  development  of  aero  units  in  the  United  States  has  been 
slow  for  various  reasons:  First,  on  account  of  the  fact  that  very 
little  money  has  been  appropriated  compared  to  the  sums  appropri- 
ated in  Europe.  Second,  the  selection  of  the  flying  personnel  has 
been  limited  to  lieutenants  of  the  Regular  Army,  unmarried,  and 
below  30  years  of  age.  This  reduces  the  number  of  eligibles  to  a 
very  small  compass  and  does  not  give  the  results  that  are  necessary. 
In  the  development  of  a  flying  personnel  it  is  thought  that,  in  addi- 
tion to  a  certain  number  of  officers  obtained  from  the  Regular  Army 
as  now  provided  for  by  law,  pilots  should  be  obtained  both  from  among 
the  enlisted  men  and  from  suitable  civilians  who  enlist  for  that  pur- 
pose. When  they  have  proved  their  ability  to  be  efficient  pilots  they 
should  be  placed  in  a  special  grade  to  be  designated  by  a  suitable 
name,  such  as  "  aero  pilot,  Signal  Corps,"  for  instance.  This  grade 
should  be  analogous  to  the  grade  of  warrant  officer  in  the  Navy. 
When  such  men  leave  the  service  for  any  cause  which  does  not  inter- 
fere with  the  performance  of  the  duties  of  pilot,  arrangements  should 
be  made  to  obtain  their  services  at  once  at  the  outbreak  of  war. 
The  observers  should  be  tactical  officers  who  have  received  training. 
The  present  organization  authorized  for  the  aero  squadrons  in  the 
United  States  provides  that  each  one  have  12  aeroplanes — 8  of  the 
reconnaissance  type,  2  of  the  speed  type,  and  2  of  the  battle  type. 
The  personnel  numbers  20  officers,  18  of  whom  are  pilots.  It  is 
intended  that  staff  and  Artillery  officers  be  used  as  observers.  The 
United  States  squadron  appears  to  be  a  well-balanced  unit  for  work 
in  this  country,  judging  by  the  experiences  obtained  in  Europe.  It 
should  be  perfected  as  soon  as  possible  and  every  effort  made  to  give 
our  Army  the  aircraft  of  all  types  needed  for  its  use.  Lieut.  Col. 
Reber,  in  this  connection,  says: 

We  who  In  the  beginning  started  the  movement  are  now  at  the  tail  of  the  pro- 
cession. We  have  no  dirigibles,  but  very  few  trained  men,  and  fewer  machines. 

515 


18 

The  manufacturing  industry  is  moribund  from  the  lack  of  business,  and  there 
is  no  future  for  it.  We  have  no  aerodynamical  laboratories  in  which  to  study 
the  problems,  and  no  engineering  courses,  except  one,  in  which  to  develop  our 
constructors.  The  Government  has  not  stimulated  any  advance  in  the  design 
of  machines  or  motors  by  competition  for  substantial  reward.  We  have  no 
national  league,  as  in  France  and  Germany,  to  assist  the  Government  by  pri- 
vate subscription  and  by  public  demand  for  the  development  of  air  power. 
The  interest  of  our  people  in  aeronautics  at  large  is  dead,  and  has  been  per- 
haps so  lulled  by  a  sense  of  false  security  and  the  belief  that  war  will  not  come 
to  such  a  vast  and  powerful  Nation  as  ours ;  that  it  will  not  heed  an  oft-quoted 
maxim  of  the  Father  of  our  Country,  "  In  time  of  peace  prepare  for  war."  In 
no  particular  is  it  more  impossible  to  make  up  deficiencies  after  the  outbreak 
of  hostilities  than  in  aeronautics.  What  is  to  be  done? 

Evidently  a  strong  appeal  should  be  made  to  Congress  for  suitable 
legislation. 

24.  SCOPE  OF  NEEDED  LEGISLATION. 

What  is  needed  is  legislation  that  will  give  means  of  obtaining 
a  sufficient  personnel  of  pilots,  enough  money  to  buy  suitable  ma- 
chines including  excellent  engines,  and  the  training  of  a  suitable 
number  of  officer-observers.  Provision  should  be  made  for  the  cre- 
ation of  captive-balloon  units,  and  dirigibles  of  various  types  should 
be  developed. 

515 


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